Understand Inclusion and Inclusive Practices in Work

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Essay Activity 4 case study - 1024 Words

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A Critical Review of Knowledge Management as a Management Tool Free Essays

string(173) " found in the literature survey is of course just a fraction of what is written about knowledge; however, these are still the things that are pointed out in the literature\." Journal of Knowledge Management Emerald Article: A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson Article information: To cite this document: Maria Martensson, (2000),†A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool†, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 4 Iss: 3 pp. 204 – 216 Permanent link to this document: http://dx. We will write a custom essay sample on A Critical Review of Knowledge Management as a Management Tool or any similar topic only for you Order Now doi. org/10. 1108/13673270010350002 Downloaded on: 23-04-2012 References: This document contains references to 78 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 18 other documents To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight. om This document has been downloaded 12944 times. Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by Shahid University of Beheshti For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Additional help for authors is available for Emerald subscribers. Please visit www. emeraldinsight. com/authors for more information. About Emerald www. emeraldinsight. om With over forty years’ experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. *Related content and download information correct at time of download. A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Introduction Over the past several years there have been intensive discussions about the importance of knowledge management (KM) within our society. Scholars and observers from disciplines as disparate as sociology, economics, and management science agree that a transformation has occurred  ± â€Å"knowledge† is at centre stage (Davenport et al. , 1998). KM and related strategy concepts are promoted as important and necessary components for organisations to survive and maintain their competitive keenness. It has become necessary for managers and executives to address â€Å"KM† (Goodman and Chinowsky, 1997). KM is considered a prerequisite for higher productivity and flexibility in both the private and the public sectors. McKern (1996) argues that powerful forces are reshaping the economic and business world and many call for a fundamental shift in organisation processes and human resources strategy. The prime forces of change include globalisation, higher degrees of complexity, new technology, increased competition, changing client demands, and changing economic and political structures. Organisations are beginning to recognise that technology-based competitive advantages are transient and that the only sustainable competitive advantages they have are their employees (Black and Synan, 1997). This development has forced steep learning curves as organisations struggle to adapt quickly, respond faster, and proactively shape their industries (Allee, 1996). To remain at the forefront and maintain a competitive edge organisations must have a good capacity to retain, develop, organise, and utilise their employee competencies (Gronhaug and Nordhaug, 1992). E The commonality of the above studies is that they all regard knowledge as a critical factor for an organisation’s survival. However, knowledge has always been a valuable asset (Chase, 2000) and an important production component, but what is KM? Is it a new way to understand organising and organisations, is it a tool for exploiting knowledge, or is it just This study was supported by the European Commission, the OECD, the Swedish Council for Work Life Research, Nutek, the Swedish Ministry of Trade and Industry, and the Swedish Public Relations Association. The author Maria Martensson is a PhD student in the Stockholm E University School of Business, Stockholm, Sweden. Keywords Knowledge management, Knowledge, Strategy Abstract Over the past several years there have been intensive discussions about the importance of knowledge management within our society. The management of knowledge is promoted as an important and necessary factor for organisational survival and maintenance of competitive strength. To remain at the forefront organisations need a good capacity to retain, develop, organise, and utilise their employees’ capabilities. Knowledge and the management of knowledge appear to be regarded as increasingly important features for organisational survival. Explores knowledge management with respect to its content, its definition and domain in theory and practice, its use and implications, and to point out some problems inherent in the concept. The main contribution of this paper is an extensive literature survey on knowledge management. Electronic access The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www. emerald-library. com Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . pp. 204 ±216 # MCB University Press . ISSN 1367-3270 04 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 another relabelling in the ceaseless flow of fashionable management concepts? The purpose of this paper is to map the contents given to KM, its definition and domain in theory and practice, its use and implications, and to point out some problems inherent in the concept. To determine what KM is, a review of the literature is necessary. Since it is not feasible to cover all the literature, the aim of the survey is not so much to summarise but to draw some conclusions about KM. The first step was to search for articles in databases using the keyword â€Å"knowledge management† and the combination â€Å"knowledge management† and â€Å"strategy†. The literature review is narrow in the sense that only studies using these keywords were included. Most of the literature in this review is of practical nature rather than theoretical (i. e. knowledgebased theory and competence-based theory). The emergence of KM seems to a great extent to be business driven (Carrillo, 2000). The limited number of keywords probably accounts for the skewed distribution of articles in favour of the practical-oriented articles. Another limitation is related to how the concept of knowledge is regarded. What is found in the literature survey is of course just a fraction of what is written about knowledge; however, these are still the things that are pointed out in the literature. You read "A Critical Review of Knowledge Management as a Management Tool" in category "Papers" In describing knowledge, it is not my intention to give a complete overview of the concept; rather, the description of knowledge is used as a tool for describing the concept KM. The paper is organised into three sections. The first section is devoted to the origins and domain of KM. The second describes KM as a tool for management, as an informationhandling tool, and as a strategic tool. In the final section, a critical examination of the concept and its implications is presented. I try to determine whether the concept of KM is a necessary tool for more efficient management, or if it is just â€Å"the emperor in new clothes†. Origins and domain of knowledge management Theoretical origins to knowledge management The field of KM can be seen as an integral part of the broader concept â€Å"intellectual capital† (Roos et al. , 1997). Guthrie (2000) make is the following distinction between KM and â€Å"intellectual capital†  ± KM is about the management of the â€Å"intellectual capital† controlled by the company. However, too often the delineation between the two terms is unclear and seldom adequately addressed (Guthrie, 2000). The problem of the management of knowledge is not new according to Roos et al. (1997). The authors use the concept â€Å"intellectual capital† as an umbrella term. â€Å"Intellectual capital† in Skandia, a major insurance company, is defined as â€Å"the possession of knowledge, applied experience, organisational technology, customer relationships, and professional skills that provide Skandia with a competitive edge in the market† (Edvinsson, 1997). Within this descriptive framework, Skandia, Dow Chemical (Petrash, 1996), and many other companies (e. g. Stewart, 1997) prefer to make an operational distinction between human, organisational, and customer capital. Roos et al. (1997) suggest that â€Å"intellectual capital† can be traced to two streams of thought, strategy and measurement. Within the strategic area, the focus is on studying the creation and use of knowledge and the relationship between knowledge and success or value creation. Measurement focuses on the need to develop new information systems, measuring non-financial data alongside the traditional financial ones. The conceptual roots of intellectual capital are depicted in Figure 1. With respect to this study, strategic planning and (operational) management of knowledge are important topics. The paper attempts to explore the creation and use of knowledge and the way it is leveraged into value. Key questions addressed include how is the use of knowledge translated into value? How can it be implemented? What important factors are needed for strategic management planning and implementation? A firm’s tangible and intangible resources, which are under the control of the firm’s administrative organ (referred to as an organisation’s condition in Rutihinda, 1996), may be grouped into two main categories: firm resources and firm capabilities (Grant, 1991). According to Grant (1991), this designation implies that resources are inputs into the production process and the capability of a firm is the capacity, what it can do, as a result of teams of resources working together. 205 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 000 . 204 ±216 Figure 1 Conceptual roots of intellectual capital A differentiation between intangible and tangible resources, or an equivalent distinction, appears to be logically required. In a study by Johanson et al. (1998), the question of what is meant by intangibles was raised. The authors concluded that there is no generally accepted definit ion of intangibles. Intangibles can be studied from at least three perspectives (e. g. accounting, statistics, and managerial). The present paper defines intangibles from the perspective of managerial purposes, i. e. management on both the strategic and operational level. To summarise, whereas a classification of intangibles in terms of RD, software, marketing, and training appears to have been the dominant mode ten years ago, today’s classification schemes are oriented towards distinguishing between external (customerrelated) and internal structures, on the one hand, and human capital, on the other (e. g. Sveiby, 1997; Roos and Roos, 1997; Petrash, 1996; Skandia, 1995). Influenced by the resource-based theory of the firm (e. g. Penrose), Luwendahl (1997) and Haanes and Luwendahl (1997) have classified a number of intangible resources from a strategic management perspective. Because there appears to be little consensus on the definition of â€Å"resources†, Haanes and Luwendahl refer to Itami (1987). Resources consist of: . . physical, human, and monetary resources that are needed for business operations to eventuate; and information-based resources, such as management skills, technology, consumer information, brand name, reputation, and corporate culture. After further elaboration on the concepts of intangible resources, intangible assets, capabilities, and competencies, Haanes and Luwendahl categorise intangible resources into competence and relational resources. The latter term refers to such intangibles as reputation, relations, and client loyalty, which are conceived of as being fundamental to the performance of the firm. Competence is defined as the ability to perform a given task and exists at both the individual and organisational level. Within the individual sphere, it includes knowledge, skills, and aptitudes; within the organisational sphere, it includes client-specific databases, technology, routines, methods, procedures, and organisational culture. The basic scheme s shown in Figure 2. Luwendahl (1997) takes the division one step further, since he divides competence and relational categories into the subgroups individual and collective, depending on whether the employee or the organisation is accentuated: Scholars of the â€Å"theory of the firm† have begun to emphasize the sources and conditions of what 206 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volu me 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 Figure 2 Intangible resources ave been described as â€Å"the organizational advantages†, rather than focus on the causes and consequences of market failure. Typically, researchers see such organizational advantage as acquiring from the particular capabilities organizations have for creating and sharing knowledge (Nahapiet and Ghoshal, 1998). in knowledge creation, storage, and deployment (Roberts, 1998; see also Grant, 1991). A firm’s distinctive competence is based on the specialised resources, assets, and skills it possesses, and focuses attention on their optimum utilisation to build competitive advantage and economic wealth (Penrose in Rutihinda, 1996). From the theory of the firm, two basic theories have emerged: resource-based theory and knowledge-based theory. Knowledgebased theory of the firm postulates that knowledge is the only resource that provides sustainable competitive advantage, and, therefore, the firm’s attention and decision making should focus primarily on knowledge and the competitive capabilities derived from it (Roberts, 1998). The firm is considered being a knowledge integrating institution. Its role is neither the acquisition nor the creation of organisational knowledge; this is the role and prerequisite of the individual. Knowledge resides in and with individual people, the firm merely integrates the individually owned knowledge by providing structural arrangements of co-ordination and cooperation of specialised knowledge workers. That is, the firm focuses on the organisational processes flowing through these structural arrangements, through which individuals engage Empirical origins to knowledge management DiMattia and Oder (1997) argue that the growth of â€Å"knowledge management† has emerged from two fundamental shifts: downsizing and technological development. Downsizing During the 1980s, downsizing was the popular strategy to reduce overhead and increase profits; however, the downside to being â€Å"lean and mean† soon became evident (Forbes, 1997). The downsizing strategy resulted in a loss of important knowledge, as employees left and took the knowledge that they had accumulated over the years with them (Piggott, 1997). With time, organisations had come to recognise that they had lost years of valuable information and expertise and were now determined to protect themselves against a recurrence (DiMattia and Oder, 1997). This led management to undertake a â€Å"knowledge management† strategy in an effort to store and retain employee knowledge for the future benefit of the company (Forbes, 1997). Organisations are now trying to use technology and systems to capture the knowledge residing in the minds of their employees, so it can be easily shared within the organisation. When stored, it becomes a 207 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 eusable resource that can provide a wealth of competitive advantages, including enhanced organisational capacities, facilitating output, and lowering costs (Forbes, 1997). Technological development The technological development has heightened the interest in â€Å"knowledge management† through two main sources: the explosive growth of information resources such as the Internet and the accelerating pace of technological change (Hibbard, 1997 ; Mayo, 1998). The recent IT development has affected both the lives of people and organisations (Mayo, 1998). The continual flow of information leaves us feeling overwhelmed and in a general state of disquietude (e. g. that we are missing important details) (Hibbard, 1997). DiMattia and Oder (1997) postulate that â€Å"knowledge management† is an attempt to cope with the explosion of information and to capitalise on increased knowledge in the workplace. The emerging technological development enables global sharing of information across platforms and continents (DiMattia and Oder, 1997) and can serve as a tool within an organisation to use knowledge more effectively. Capturing a company’s collective expertise in databases can help organisations to â€Å"know what they actually know†, and then marshal and exploit this knowledge in a systematic way (Blake, 1998). The domain of knowledge management An essential part of KM is, of course, knowledge. To map the domains of knowledge, traits of the concept knowledge have been put forward based on the stream of research reviewed. The question of the nature of knowledge is extremely challenging. Although philosophers have been discussing the issue for several hundred years, the search for a formal definition continues (Emery, 1997). The definitions appearing in the literature range from studying knowledge from a broad perspective to more sophisticated definitions. The present review has resulted in two definitions of knowledge. Characteristics of knowledge The following taxonomy of knowledge has been expressed in the KM literature: . Knowledge cannot easily be stored (Gopal and Gagnon, 1995). Knowledge is something that resides in people’s . . inds rather than in computers (The Banker, 1997). Unlike raw material, knowledge usually is not coded, audited, inventoried, and stacked in a warehouse for employees to use as needed. It is scattered, messy, and easy to lose (Galagan, 1997). Furthermore, Allee (1997a) has defined knowledge in terms of 12 qualities: knowledge is messy; it is self-organising; it seeks community; it travels on language; it is slippery; it likes loo seness; it experiments; it does not grow forever; it is a social phenomenon; it evolves organically; it is multi-modal; and it is multi-dimensional. To use the flow of data/information we must develop effective ways to make the input of and access to information easy (Mayo, 1998) and to sort the useful from the useless (Schaefer, 1998). We must develop systems where people are able to â€Å"navigate† effectively. This can be made by storing the information in different databases and make it possible for people to cross-reference and link documents speedily and easily (Mayo, 1998). Information has little value and will not become knowledge until it is processed by the human mind (Ash, 1998). Knowledge involves the processing, creation, or use of information in the mind of the individual (Kirchner, 1997). Although information is not knowledge, it is an important aspect of knowledge. The process begins with facts and data, which are organised and structured to produce general information. The next stage involves organising and filtering this information to meet the requirements of a specific community of users, producing contextual information. Next, individuals assimilate the contextual information and transform it into knowledge. This transformation process is affected by individuals’ experiences, attitudes, and the context in which they work. The final stage of the continuum is behaviour; unless information and knowledge lead to an informed decision or action, the whole process becomes invalidated (Infield, 1997). Knowledge should be studied in context. Knowledge is information combined with experience, context, interpretation, reflection, and perspective (Davenport et al. , 1998; Kirchner, 1997; Frappaolo, 208 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 . 1997) that adds a new level of insight (Frappaolo, 1997). Allee (1997b) suggests that knowledge becomes meaningful when it is seen in the larger context of our culture, which evolves out of our beliefs and philosophy. The final characteristic is that knowledge is ineffectual if it is not used. Knowledge is a high-value form of information that is ready to be applied to decisions and actions (Davenport et al. , 1998). Sveiby (1997) has defined it as the capacity to act on information and thereby make it valuable. Knowledge management as a management tool KM is often described as a management tool. More precisely, it is described either as an operational tool or as a strategically focused management tool. Knowledge management as an information handling tool Within the field of KM (Figure 3), knowledge is often regarded as an information handling problem. It deals with the creation, management and exploitation of knowledge. Some of the literature fits into a definition of KM that consists of separate but related stages. The first two stages are invariably linked, both on abstract theoretical grounds and in practice. As the first step in the process, there is acquisition of information. In the second stage, the information is entered into a storage system and organised logically. Almost every definition of knowledge management includes the storage of knowledge (e. g. Yeh et al. , 2000; Blake, 1998, 2000; Mayo, 1998; Anthes, 1998; Cole-Gomolski, 1997a, 1997b, 1998; Symoens, 1998; Laberis, 1998; Nerney, 1997; Ostro, 1997; InfoWorld, 1997; Watson, 1998; LaPlante, 1997; Ash, 1998; DiMattia and Oder, 1997; Hibbard, 1997; Finerty, 1997; Bassi, 1997). KM is about acquisition and storage of workers’ knowledge and making information accessible to other employees within the organisation. This is often achieved by using various technologies such as Internet and databases, and is a conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge (Papows, 1998). Once the information is stored in the various databases, the third stage is initiated. In this stage, the stored information is made accessible to as many employees as possible within the organisation (LaPlante, 1997). It is about distributing it into the hands of the right end users at the right time (Ostro, 1997) and where it can be of best use (Nerney, 1997). The final stage is about utilisation of information. This process begins with people sharing knowledge by talking and socialising with one another or by exchanging information in digital or analogue form (Laberis, 1998). Tacit and explicit knowledge Another way of defining knowledge is to make a distinction between â€Å"tacit† and â€Å"explicit† knowledge (Polyani, 1966). Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) make the same point in more precise terms: . Explicit knowledge is documented and public; structured, fixed-content, externalised, and conscious (Duffy, 2000). Explicit knowledge is what can be captured and shared through information technology. . Tacit knowledge resides in the human mind, behaviour, and perception (Duffy, 2000). Tacit knowledge evolves from people’s interactions and requires skill and practice. Nonaka and Takeuchi suggest that tacit knowledge is hidden and thus cannot be easily represented via electronics. Tacit refers to hunches, intuitions and insights (Guth, 1996), it is personal, undocumented, contextsensitive, dynamically created and derived, internalised and experience-based (Duffy, 2000). Nonaka and Takeuchi mean that knowledge is the product of the interaction of explicit and tacit knowledge. The process of creating knowledge results in a spiralling of knowledge acquisition. It starts with people sharing their internal tacit knowledge by socialising with others or by capturing it in digital or analogue form. Other people then internalise the shared knowledge, and that process creates new knowledge. These people, with the newly created knowledge, then share this knowledge with others, and the process begins again. Hibbard (1997) articulated this process as innovation. 209 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 Figure 3 The stages of knowledge management Knowledge management as a strategic management tool KM and its implications are frequently discussed at seminars and conferences. The number of companies claiming to work with knowledge management is growing steadily. Several surveys have been conducted to determine how many organisations are working or planning to work with KM (Nerney, 1997; Hibbard and Carrillo, 1998; Cole-Gomolski, 1998). A recurrent problem with these studies is that the concepts (e. g. the use of KM) are seldom defined. This uncertainty has made it difficult to draw the desired inferences from the results of these studies. The surveys are attempts to either implement KM strategies or implement measurement systems on how to measure different intangible assets, or a combination of both. The central idea underlying a strategy is that organisations must adjust their capabilities (i. . their resources and skills) to a constantly changing complex external E environment (Teece, in Gronhaug and Nordhaug, 1992). Gopal and Gagnon (1995) put it succinctly when they maintain that effective KM starts with a strategy. Within a KM strategy, knowledge is recognised as an organisation’s most valuable and under-used resource and places the intellectual capital at the centre of what an organisation does (Ash, 1998). To start to create a KM strategy, an organisation needs to build systems for capturing and transferring internal knowledge and best practices (Allerton, 1998). The purpose, goal and expected outcomes of an organisation’s work with KM are many. For instance, KM can be seen as a way to improve performance (Ostro, 1997; Bassi, 1997), productivity and competitiveness (Maglitta, 1995), a way to improve effective acquisition, sharing and usage of information within organisations (Maglitta, 1995), a tool for improved decision making (People Management, 1998; Cole-Gomolski, 1997a, 1997b), a way to capture best practices (ColeGomolski, 1998), a way to reduce research costs and delays (Maglitta, 1995), and a way o become a more innovative organisation (People Management, 1998; Hibbard, 1997). A study by the American Productivity and Quality Center shows that 89 per cent of the participants in the study said that the core goal for knowledge management is to capture and transfer knowledge and best practices (Allerton, 1998). People Management (1998) reports on a survey in which individuals responsible for implementing KM strategy were interviewe d. The results indicated that the main obstacles to implementation were lack of ownership of the problem (64 per cent), lack of time (60 per cent), organisational structure (54 per cent), senior management commitment (46 per cent), rewards and recognition (46 per cent), and an emphasis on individuals rather than on teamwork (45 per cent). Among â€Å"Fortune 1000† companies the main problems with KM projects are a lack of focus and a lot of reinventing the wheel (Coleman, 1998). Based on an extensive multi-firm study by the American Productivity and Quality Center, hurdles to KM include the lack of a commonly held model for knowledge creation and dissemination and the absence of systems or processes designed to support and evaluate the effectiveness of KM (Ostro, 1997). Most firms with a KM system based purely on a technology solution have found that such an approach fails. Though technology may be necessary for KM, it appears never to be sufficient (Warren, 1999; Bassi, 1997). To successfully create and implement a knowledge management strategy, authors have suggested that certain critical elements must be included. The elements I have found to be of particular importance are the following: . the â€Å"so what? † question; . support from top management; . communication; . creativity; . culture and people; . sharing knowledge; . incentives; . time; . evaluation. 210 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 The importance of the â€Å"so what? ‘ questions A KM strategy should be linked to what the organisation is attempting to achieve. It is also important to articulate the purpose of the KM strategy. What benefits does the organisation expect to gain from their work with KM? How will it affect the employees’ work? (Klaila, 2000) The importance of support from top management The personnel function should focus on top managemen t to encourage processes that will promote cross-boundary learning and sharing. This includes helping to set up and, possibly, fund knowledge networks, as well as defining and developing the skills of learning from other people (Mayo, 1998). Organisations that have achieved the greatest success in KM are those that have appointed a senior-level executive to assume the mantle of full-time chief knowledge officer (Gopal and Gagnon, 1995). The importance of communication Saunders (in Ash, 1998) found that the missing factor in strategic management texts was communication. According to the consultants, a large proportion of the organisations failed to implement the strategies because of a lack of communication. Only a few companies designed a â€Å"good† communication plan to follow through on business strategies. After reviewing nearly 200 articles and conference proceedings on data warehousing, Keen (1997) was struck by how little is said about action  ± â€Å"real† people making â€Å"real† decisions to have a â€Å"real† impact. They do not look at how those real people become informed. The importance of creativity As Kao (1997) notes, a good strategy to work with KM issues is not enough. The author describes the link between strategy and creativity. A connection between these two allows organisations to survive in the future. The implications of business creativity will depend upon the type of fusion created between KM and the basic skills of creativity management (Kao, 1997). The importance of culture and people Successful implementation of KM is linked to such entities as culture and people. In a recent study where the importance of people, as opposed to technology and processes, was examined when implementing a KM strategy, 70 per cent reported that employees are the most important factor and 75 per cent reported that there should be an even greater emphasis on people (People Management, 1998). In the view of the best-practice organisations, people and culture are at the heart of creating a successful knowledgebased organisation. Several studies have shown that people and cultural issues are the most difficult problems to resolve, but produce the greatest benefits (People Management, 1998). The biggest challenge for KM is not a technical one  ± it can be integrated into any number of IT systems  ± but a cultural one (Forbes, 1997; Koudsi, 2000). It is the difficult task of overcoming cultural barriers, especially the sentiment that holding information is more aluable than sharing it (Warren, 1999; Anthes, 1998). This is supported by Hadley Reynolds, at Delphi Group, in Boston who released a study demonstrating that corporate culture was cited by 53 per cent of the respondents as being the biggest obstacle to deploying KM applications (Cole-Gomolski, 1997b). In another study (People Management, 1998), culture was seen by 80 per cent of those surveyed as the biggest obsta cle in creating a knowledge-based organisation. The importance of sharing knowledge The ability to share knowledge and collaborate are all too often missing in our organisations (Mayo, 1998). Efforts to deploy KM group-ware are frequently met with employee reluctance to share their expertise (Cole-Gomolski, 1997b). The likely reason for this is that employees are competitive by nature and may be more inclined to hoard than share the knowledge they possess (Forbes, 1997). On the other hand, a better process of sharing knowledge benefits the firm. This is shown in a study of 33 organisations conducted by the American Productivity and Quality Center (Alter, 1997). Ostro (1997) reports the results of an extensive multi-firm study by the American Productivity and Quality Center. He found that the main reason why knowledge was not being shared was that employees did not realise their experiences would be valuable to others. Mayo (1998) feels that recruiters should look for capabilities to share knowledge with 211 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 new employees, as well as assessing what new knowledge they can bring to an organisation. Part of the introduction process for recruits should involve â€Å"capturing† their knowledge and experience. Although most new employees bring useful specialist experience with them, few people tap this rich reservoir of information. Meanwhile, the introduction should also be about passing on the experience of predecessors to new employees. Mayo states that: When people leave, the HR department asks for their company car keys and so on. Why not conduct a recruitment interview in reverse to retrieve information? nd that the pivotal role is played by culture; by an unquestioned, even unconscious, code that encourages knowledge sharing and cooperative behaviour (The Banker, 1997). The importance of time It is important to create time and opportunities for people to learn. One successful approach is to create formal learning networks so that the identification and transfer of effective practices become part of the job (Galagan, 1997). The greatest enemies of knowledge sharing are the time that is required to input and access information and the lack of motivation among potential users (Mayo, 1998). The importance of evaluation It is important to create a system for evaluating the attempts that are made to use KM. The evaluation system can range from informal attempts, such as talking to people about how â€Å"best practice† is shared within the firm, or to the use of far more sophisticated tools to measure the outcomes. To summarise, to implement a KM strategy successfully both the creation and the leverage of knowledge must be taken into account. He also points out that there is an unwillingness to trust employees with information. A favourite excuse given by organisations that withhold information is one of â€Å"commercial sensitivity†, which reflects an unwillingness to trust employees with information. Salary surveys are a good example of this. In how many organisations are such data freely available to all interested employees? The importance of incentives One of the most important issues when working on a KM strategy is to create the right incentives for people to share and apply knowledge (The Banker, 1997). The personal reward systems must support the culture of sharing knowledge (Keeler, 2000; Mayo, 1998). To improve this process it is crucial to reward employees that contribute their expertise and to make sure employees understand the benefits of KM (ColeGomolski, 1997b). The organisations should ask themselves the following questions: Are the employees receiving signals that encourage the process of sharing knowledge? What criterion is used for promoting staff? Are instances in which the business has benefited from sharing learning publicly celebrated? Are mistakes made that could have been avoided if it had been known that similar errors had happened in the past (Mayo, 1998)? A problem with many reward systems and incentives for sharing knowledge is that useful knowledge comes from relatively low down in the organisation, from people who are not on incentive systems and probably respond much more readily to the feeling that they belong to highly motivated, leading edge, innovative groups of people. This probably means in the Discussion The literature and theories concerning the management of knowledge have grown remarkably during the past couple of years. Nevertheless, what is the contribution from KM? Is it business salvation or the â€Å"emperor’s new clothes†? Because of downsizing, organisations have been forced to create systems and processes that decrease the dependencies on the knowledge residing within the individuals. To exploit knowledge more efficiently organisations are now trying to codify and store the individual’s knowledge, i. e. making tacit knowledge explicit and transposing individual knowledge into organisational knowledge. Those transformation processes have been made possible through the recent and fast development within IT. Because knowledge is largely tacit and individually owned, it is difficult to have charge of and control over the course of knowledge. The literature review suggests that the major contribution from KM concerns the effort to transpose tacit knowledge into explicit information, which 212 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 will lead to greater possibilities to manage and control knowledge effectively. One major issue that has hardly been dealt with and, therefore, n need of further inquiry concerns how this process of translating tacit into explicit knowledge works. The management of knowledge may be examined from two theoretical perspectives. One perspective involves theories where the focus is on the individual’s knowledge; the second comprises theories wherein the knowledge itself is the centre of interest. Human capital is defined by Flamholtz (1985) as â₠¬Å"the knowledge, skills and experience of people†. Within human capital theories, the employee is regarded as the bearer of knowledge. Another perspective, in which knowledge is the centre of interest, is the knowledge-based theory of the firm. In such theories, the individual exists but the focus is more on knowledge than the individual. The two perspectives could be described as being either individualistic or holistic. From a holistic view the sum of an organisation is more than the sum of the individuals, whereas from an individualistic view, the sum of an organisation is the sum of the individuals (Hollis, 1994). Within the recent theoretical development (i. e. nowledge-based theories of the firm), the focus has shifted from an individual perspective to an emphasis on knowledge residing in the organisation as a whole, i. e. a holistic approach. Mayo (1998) noted that many companies have been managing knowledge for decades but that few companies, whether global or national, use these disciplines on a regular basis. One problem regarding knowledge and KM is to outline its content and domain. This literature revie w highlights the need to better clarify what we mean when we are using concepts such as â€Å"knowledge† and â€Å"KM†. Carrillo (2000) argues that one can often find the most diverse labels applied to KM. There are also those who believe that term to be inconsistent because knowledge as such cannot be managed (Carrillo, 2000). The lack of clearly defined concepts has been explored in closely related areas (Johanson et al. , 1998; Grojer and Johanson, 1998; Power, E 1997). Also the boundaries of KM are fuzzy. To illustrate, what are the differences between â€Å"competitive intelligence† (Fleicher, 1998), â€Å"intellectual capital† and KM? Sometimes knowledge is clearly defined in the original source, but too often it is not. Because of the nature of knowledge, the attainment of a formal definition is unlikely. There is thus a need for clarification of what we are talking about whenever the word â€Å"knowledge† is used. A large bulk of the present review is based on an IT perspective. The focus here is more on creating databases for storing information and making the information available, and thus the literature review focuses mainly on explicit knowledge (Warren, 1999). The first part of KM, the storage of information, is the one most often described. This is probably because the storage of information is the first and perhaps the easiest phase of KM. However, what is missing is how this information can be used and translated into knowledge and become a part of the organisation’s knowledge base. The ambiguity of the distinction between information and knowledge has been a major source of difficulty and, in many articles, the distinction between information and knowledge is not clearly articulated. Duffy (2000) argues that technology vendors have contributed to this confusion. Every technology that ever had anything to do with digitised information is now a KM product, or even a complete KM solution. Knowledge is often used as something similar to information, but information and knowledge are far from synonymous. Tacit knowledge might have begun as information, but because it is processed by the human mind, it can be translated into explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is identical to information; it can be easily stored outside the human mind (e. g. in databases), but nonetheless it cannot be described as knowledge until it has been processed. The impact of KM is a complex field. If KM is used as a strategic tool the outcome is difficult to estimate. The problem to estimate the value of KM remains even if it is used as an operational tool. However, the operative perspective could be considered estimated by the organisation if the tool is used. If it had no value the organisations would not use it. Theoretically, it is easier to determine the value of KM. This is because knowledge, through downsizing, is a scarce resource. Another pertinent topic missing when the value of KM is described in the literature is costs. None of the articles reviewed discussed the connection between the costs in the 213 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 organisation’s work and KM. That is, the values created by the management of knowledge are not related to the costs connected to the work. When analysing Roos et al. ‘s (1997, p. 15) model on the conceptual roots of intellectual capital (see Figure 1), we see that all the strategic contributions on knowledge zero in on two essential features: the way knowledge is created and the way it is leveraged into value. Some concepts focus almost exclusively on one point or the other; e. g. he learning organisation concepts mostly examine the mechanism of knowledge development. However, other concepts such as KM are more balanced, focusing on both. The knowledge leverage class is divided into three sub-classes: KM, core competencies, and invisible assets. Likewise, the knowledge development class is divided into three subclasses: learning organisation, conversation management, and innovation . An organisation’s work with KM should focus on transposing tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge and see to it that individual knowledge becomes organisational knowledge. This can be explained not only by a need for organisations to better manage knowledge by establishing core competencies for individuals, judging success and performance indicators via recognition of invisible assets, but also for organisations to strive to become an innovative organisation and a learning organisation with a knowledge sharing culture. The final question raised in this paper concerns whether knowledge is always something good? Knowledge is assumed to be generally positive. However, it is untenable to assume that knowledge is always positive and good. Within the framework of knowledgebased theory, it is claimed that the only resource that provides an organisation with sustainable competitive advantages is knowledge. Nonetheless, knowledge as such will not have much value for the organisation in building its competitive advantages since only relevant knowledge can function in such a capacity. To see that the concept of KM will not just vanish as so many other management concepts have done over the years, it is important that KM is not regarded as â€Å"the Jack of all trades†. If this happens, there is the risk that it will probably become â€Å"the master of none†. How to cite A Critical Review of Knowledge Management as a Management Tool, Papers

Comparative Essay Heaney

Comparative Essay Heaney-Clarke In Mid-Term Break Seamus Heaney writes about a painful memory. Compare this poem with two others from this collection in which poets write about memories. Include one poem by Gillian Clarke and one poem from the Pre-1914 Bank. The painful memory that Seamus Heaney writes about is his brothers death and funeral and how it affects his family and social life. Gillian Clarkes poem is not about a painful memory but is more about the wonder of inherited memory (a memory which is passed down through the generations like a story) her poem though like Seamus Heaneys is about near death and its effects, even though Gillian Clarke is of no relation to the girl who nearly drowned, she is only included once her mother interferes. Ben Johnson is another painful memory and like the other two poems is about death, the death of his first born son. Cold Knap Lake, Gillian Clarkes poem and Mid-Term Break by Seamus Heaney are both structured loosely and irregularly, they both use the technique of stream of consciousness this creates an effect that the poets are writing down what they feel at that precise time, the same effect is created by On My First Sonne by Ben Johnson his structure is strict because it is in the form of a sonnet but it is not a traditional sonnet because it does not have 14 lines. Sonnets in that period were a great way of expressing feelings such as love and grief. Cold Knap Lake is a narrative which in the second part explores about memory; it has an alternate 4 and 6 line stanza and ends in a rhyming couplet. Mid-Term Break has an irregular structure with some regularities it has a 3 line stanza and ends in an isolated line which rhymes with the last line of the last stanza. On My First Sonne its structure is of an irregular sonnet because a traditional sonnet has 14 rhyming couplets written in iambic pentameter, which means 10 syllables per line. On My First Sonne has only 12 rhyming couplets. Cold Knap Lake and Mid-Term Break are 20th century poems which are written loosely, Cold Knap Lake is mainly about confusion because it is part rhyme and also loose rhyme. The Language in all three poems is completely different but all achieve the same effects. All three poems end in a rhyme on the final two lines this creates a strong, memorable, dramatic ending to the poem. Mid-Term Break at the end of this poem there is an isolated line which makes the poem very dramatic. The conclusion is formed in that isolated line and it also summarises the poets feelings clearly. In Cold Knap Lake the first three stanzas narrate the story of the girl nearly drowning, the last 2 stanzas explore Clarkes feelings and ideas about memory. On My First Sonne the end rhyme couplet is following the structure of the traditional sonnet and has regular rhyme and rhythm. In Cold Knap Lake and Mid-Term Break the end rhyme is the final piece of the jigsaw by explaining how old his brother is, or leaves a riddle like Gillian Clarke does by saying very vaguely all lost things lie under closing water in that lake with the poor mans daughter this is open to interpretation on different readers. All three poems Cold Knap Lake, Mid-Term Break which are modern poems and On My First Sonne which is a classical form of a sonnet, all these poems use literary techniques such as alliteration in Cold Knap Lake some examples of this and the meanings behind them are we once watched a crowd. The repeated sound of w and ow create a feel of water which is one of the main themes of Cold Knap Lake, there is also drawn by the dread of it creates a feeling of horror and fear, also the fact that people are curious about death. Mid- Term Break also uses alliteration such as counting bells knelling classes to a close which is like the sound of bells, knelling is the sound of funeral bells so the poet being able to hear the sound of funeral bells all ready and it being near the beginning of the poem means that there is a strong atmosphere of tension and sorrow already. Also four foot box a foot for every year is a repeating of the f sound which is soft and sorrowful. .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 , .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 .postImageUrl , .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 , .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329:hover , .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329:visited , .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329:active { border:0!important; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329:active , .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329 .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8a0f3bc79dac99bf7d01554a67d2e329:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The cask of Amontillado by Edgar Allen Poe EssayThere was also many uses of sibilance which is a form of alliteration but is the repetition of the s sound and is used to give a sense of evil or as in Cold Knap Lake it is used to give a sense of water troubled surface something else shadowy in Mid-Term Break it is used as a sense of whispering, whispers informed strangers I was the eldest. and in On My First Sonne Ben Johnson is using it to describe that his son has so soone scapd worlds. There is also a lot of use of Onomatopoeia such as in Cold Knap Lake Gillian Clarke uses the words bleating to create a sense of innocence, a lamb and life. Also the word whistle which is used to describe the swans, and trying to draw attention towards memory. In Mid-Term Break the words used are knelling which describes the funeral bell sound. The baby cooed which shows the innocence of childhood and the obliviousness of youth to death. In On My first Sonne there is no onomatopoeia. Cold knap Lake uses rhetorical questions and statements to give a sense of confusion whereas in Mid-Term Break the poet records the timing exactly and in a direct statement, he remembers small details such as the names of people like his fathers friend Big Jim this gives a sense of clarity. Both poems Cold Knap Lake and Mid-Term Break touch on the ideas about the transition of childhood into adulthood. In Mid-Term Break Seamus Heaney is embarrassed and feels scared of being respected by the adults especially by the old men who stand up to shake my hand he realises he must mature quickly but shows that he is still a child as he holds his mothers hand who coughed out angry tearless sighs. Cold Knap Lake is about memory, the poetic personal or voice of the poem is an adult looking back at childhood. It is mainly about the loss of memory and childhood because as soon as dipped fingers touch the memory it changes into something else. It possibly touches on the powerlessness of youth and the power of adults, like he mother who was a heroine. On My First Sonne is mainly about losing something that is deeply loved, and the fear of loving something that much again only to be hurt. All three poems are about grief, death or near death. Mid-Term Break is the death of his 4 year old brother and the personal close family. Cold Knap Lake is about the near drowning of a young girl; it is impersonal, because the girl is a stranger and is distant. On My First Sonne is of the death of his firstborn son. Mid-Term Break and Cold Knap Lake is about memory , it is a theme of Mid-Term Break and is a central theme of Cold Knap Lake the memory is sometimes elusive and full of cloudiness as portrayed in Cold Knap Lake or is forever stuck in the mind as shown in Mid-Term Break, On My First Sonne is about his sons death and he is never likely to forget it as he has promised to love nothing as dearly as he loved his son. In Mid-Term Break another theme is death which is seen as cold and harsh by the words he uses such as corpse and hard blow. Death in Cold Knap Lake is described as beautiful and life as beautiful by words such as rosy or dressed in waters green silk

HONDA Report Essay Example

HONDA Report Essay Introduction. Soichiro Honda was born on November 17, 1906, in Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan. He was a racer, a businessman, and a manufacturer. He dreamed of a better way of making piston rings, founded a small company, and began production. He was also a Japanese engineer and industrialist, and founder of Honda Motor Company, Ltd, which is a Japanese multinational corporation primarily know as a manufacturer of automobiles and motorcycles. Headquartered in Japan, Honda Motor Company is one of the major producers of quality motor vehicles around the world. Honda Motor Company is by far the worlds biggest motorcycle maker since 1959. Hondas quality, innovation and reliability have made it one of the most sought after car brands in the world. Its major car models such as Accord have occupied the leadership position in global sales for years now. Honda cars are also renowned for their fuel efficiency and have a loyal customer following all around the world. Hondas leadership position is sustained due to its enormous focus on RD, quality and innovation. Along with Toyota, its major competitor, Honda has ruled the US markets with its uccessful models and captured market share of American manufacturers such as GM and Ford. This success turned Hondas focus to another dream, the American Dream, and the company also moved away from other companies who relied upon distributors to sell their bikes when the company set up its headquarters in the west coast of America. Company overview 0 Honda has grown to become the worlds largest motorcycle manufacturer and one of the leading automakers. We will write a custom essay sample on HONDA Report specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on HONDA Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on HONDA Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Honda develops, manufactures and markets a wide variety of products ranging from small general-purpose engines and scooters to pecialty sports cars, to earn the Honda Motor Company an outstanding reputation from customers worldwide. The Companys business is carried out through four segments: The Two-Wheel segment manufactures two-wheel vehicles All-terrain vehicles (ATVs) Personal watercrafts And other related products. The Four-Wheel segment offers four-wheel vehicles and other related products. The first production automobile from Honda was the T360 mini pick-up truck, which went on sale in August 1963. He was produced as a conventional rear wheel drive pickup truck, a flatbed with folding sides, and as a covered van. But, Hondas major car models include its best selling Accord, Civic, CRV, Hybrid car Insight and its luxury range of cars under the Acura brand. The Accord automobile followed in 1976, the same year that American Honda released its first automatic transmission motorcycle, the CB750A. The Honda Civic is a line of subcompact and subsequently compact cars. On the automotive side, Honda became the first manufacturer to finish first, second and third in the Motor Trend Import Cars of the Year selections. The word ? « civic ? » means of, or relating to a citizen, a city, citizenship or civil affairs. As its name suggests, the Civic incorporated Hondas wish to create a car for all people, a car for the world. The Financial segment in engaged in the provision of financial and insurance services. The General-purpose and Others segment is engaged in the manufacture of general-purpose products and its related products. Headquartered in Tokyo, the Company has over 400 subsidiaries and over 100 associated companies in Japan, North America, Europe, Asia and other districts. It is essential that Honda Motor Company focused on making its cars more fuel- efficient. To make this idea work, Honda will need to spend heavily on continuous research and development. Such R process is an on-going activity at progressive and innovative organizations like Honda. Hondas engineers will need to think out of the box and come up with innovative technologies that can really set apart Honda from its compet itors. Focusing on high HP-to-weight ratio engines and environment friendly hybrid vehicles will help the company to protect its market share in the future. For example, the two seated Insight model, which derived its power from a ombination of a 3-cylinder gasoline engine, and a large battery pack providing power-assist during acceleration was a good start. Another innovation is the use of ethanol as an efficient and more environment friendly gas substitute. Honda Motor Company needs to create new models or redesign existing models to be more friendly and geared for comfort of the older generations, such as the baby boomers. This comfort should be teamed with a fashionable look, as baby boomers dont want to be reminded of their aging bodies. To come up with this range of product mix, Honda will need to make significant capital expenditure. However, this strategy can be dangerous as Honda might lose its focus. In an effort to capture this segment of the marketplace, Honda might lose its quality and strategic focus. However, if this option is pursued, Honda will need to raise capital in the form of equity as well debt in a suitable combination to fund this capital expenditure. 0 Honda is already expanding their U. S. production, today, 80% of the 1. 3 million cars Honda sells in North America are made at North American factories, and the parts in Hondas American cars increasingly come from local suppliers. Honda plans to increase its production from the current 1. 4 million units a year to 1. 62 million units within a year. This new growth should be put in areas where the cost of living is relatively low. This will ensure that Honda can pay workers fair wages for the area. Creating a loyalty to American made products is no t the only reason that Honda needs to expand its local production levels. Since over 70% of revenue for Honda is gained in America, it is important to make the vehicles where or close to where they are sold. With the ever-changing exchange rate between the United States and Japan, local production gives Honda stability. This helps Honda to be much more resistant to exchange fluctuations, says Satoshi Aoki, senior managing director at Honda in To Conclusion Unlike other global businesses that see size as the key to survival, Honda embraces the ideal that even as Honda operations expand around the globe, they want to maintain the qualities of a small company that is close to its customers. The ability to produce a worthwhile product with the speed, flexibility and efficiency of a small company and the essential elements of a large company global reach and echnological strength, is what drives them into the future and will continue to help them strategize their global efforts. Hondas global strategy is very simple put cost-effective plants in areas that best meet the needs of local customers. They integrate plants into markets with a Small Born manufacturing strategy, starting small and then expanding as local demand increases. This thinking has helped them establish more than 100 factories in 33 countries, an approach that allows Honda to achieve efficiency and profitability, even at low production volumes.

Visitor Management at the National Gallery †Trafalgar Square, London The WritePass Journal

Visitor Management at the National Gallery – Trafalgar Square, London Visitor Management at the National Gallery – Trafalgar Square, London ). 3. Standards of Customer Care An essential element of the visitor management strategy for any British organization is agreeing to undertake certain standards of customer care through the advent of the National Code of Practice for Visitor Attractions where managers of these facilities agree to undertake certain standards with regards to high standards of customer case, courtesy, appropriate maintenance to ensure visitor safety, adequate visitor facilities, prompt enquiry response time and access for disabled persons or those with special needs (such as the visually or hearing impaired). Not only does this include customer care at the facility itself, but also in being able to access the facility through the use of adequate signage, welcome and access facilities. Therefore customer care is both a logistical and judgmental concern (Shackley, 1999). In addition to standard customer care which include adequate gallery staff members, availability of information and courtesy, the National Gallery places this access as a foremost concern of a visitors experience in the gallery and undertakes these standards of customer care in a number of different ways. In terms of external logistics, there is adequate signage from all the surrounding transport facilities, as well as the nearby attractions leading to easy directions from those attractions to the National Gallery. Arguably however, this is less of a concern since the gallery is itself in Trafalgar Square. The gallery offers special facilities for blind and partially sighted visitors through providing Braille information, descriptive folders, events particularly for these visitors and in the exhibitions themselves. The gallery further makes provisions for assistance dogs. For visitors with mobility disabilities, there is adequate access through the entire gallery, as well as nearby o ff-street parking and seating available throughout the entire gallery. For deaf and hearing impaired visitors there are British Sign Language interpretive discussions on the paintings, audio guides and in the case of exhibition videos and films, subtitles on all materials (NG Website, 2012). In this way therefore, the National Gallery ensures that these levels of customer care are adhered to. 4. Ensuring Visitor Satisfaction Ensuring visitor satisfaction is obviously the primary goal of a visitor management strategy and ensuring this is based on a complex set of factors for consideration of the management. Value for money and customer experience is essential to this, therefore ensuring that visitors feel that they are getting the most from the cost of their experience is essential. The National Gallery does not ask a standard entrance fee from visitors, however does ask a nominal amount for a comprehensive floor plan of the gallery, as well as for the special exhibits. This ensures that general visitors to the gallery have access to a sufficient proportion of the gallery and are experiencing high levels of visitor satisfaction without being excluded from the main attractions in the gallery. There are optional visitor guides, audio guides and descriptive folders available for further information, however the base information provided free of charge is sufficient to ensure visitor satisfaction. Avoiding bottlenecks and queues in the National Gallery is a particular point of concern and to the extent that the gallery has been able to avoid these, it has taken certain measures such as positioning the popular exhibits in larger rooms where there is more space for visitors to access the paintings, as well as placement within the rooms themselves. The gallery has ensured that these paintings are placed in a certain way so as to ensure more people can access them. These paintings are also not placed close together, to avoid crowding around one particular piece. In conjunction with this, high volumes of people present a security concern for visitors which is an important aspect of visitor management (Shackler, 1999) and to this extent the gallery has a state of the art security system with video surveillance of the whole gallery, as well as adequate security staff throughout and a staff member in every room of the gallery (NG Website, 2012). References National Gallery Website (2012) [online] Available on: www.nationalgallery.org.uk [Accessed 28 November 2012] Schmenner, R. (1995) Service Operations Management. Prentice Hall: NJ Shackley, M. (1999) Visitor Management in Leask, A. Yeoman, I. (eds) ‘Heritage Visitor Attractions: An Operations Management Perspective’ London: Thomson Learning

Political Communication in the Electronic Age Essay

Political Communication in the Electronic Age - Essay Example Few people write letters or read the newspapers anymore as these are seemingly archaic methods of communication and have the added disadvantage of costing money, regardless of how little this sum might actually be.   â€Å"Nowadays, we think nothing of emailing our aunts in Germany and getting an answer back within minutes, or seeing the latest streaming video full of up to the minute news† (Boswell, 2006).   Neither letter-writing nor newspaper delivery can provide the instant information that is today essential for businesses in the modern world to compete effectively and simply a fact of life that is taken for granted for most in the developed world.   This fact alone has changed the way in which the politicians of the world must reach out to their constituency if they expect to gain support.   People, the public at large as well as politicians, are now turning to alternative forms of receiving information, such as blogs, video blogs, webcasts, chatrooms and listser vs.   However, this introduces new challenges in determining just how to determine credible sources from noncredible and just how far the internet should be allowed to go in terms of free speech and expression.   Decency, censorship, free speech, ethicsOne of the controversial aspects of the internet and instant posting is that the internet provides a means of gathering news that has not necessarily been filtered through the many regulations and restrictions imposed by national or state boundaries.   This is primarily due to the fact that the internet itself is not regulated.

The growth and impact of 'temporary' employmen Research Paper

The growth and impact of 'temporary' employmen - Research Paper Example Department of Labor 1). The current paper hereby aims to present the growth and impact of temporary employment in the U.S. through initially providing a brief historical overview of temporary employment, prior to presenting current statistics on the subject. The causes and effects of temporary employment on the plight of employment condition in the country would also be examined, prior to a concluding portion would wraps up the points that were discussed. Recent economic difficulties in the country and all over the world have affected the tenure, status, and working conditions of the labor force. There are rampant news that reveal increasing levels of unemployment globally and more workers seeking temporary and part-time employment to be able to support a variety of needs. According to Villarreal and Swanson (2011), aside from economic factors that influence the rate of employment, the concerns about future imposition of taxes and the costs of health care in the country preclude optimistic growth potentials for supporting and sustaining permanent employment. As such, greater numbers of people seeking employment resort to part-time jobs and temporary employment. The characteristics of benefits eligibility for temporary employees have been explicitly indicated by DOL, to wit: â€Å"Temporary employees are eligible to earn leave and are covered by Social Security and unemployment compensation, but do not receive the other fringe benefits provided to career civil service employees. Current law allows temporary employees to purchase health insurance after they have one year of temporary service, but the employee must pay the full cost with no Government contribution. Employees are not eligible for coverage under the Federal Government Life Insurance program or the Federal Employees Retirement System† (U.S. Department of Labor par. 2). Thus, the disparities between a permanent from a temporary employee

The advantages and disadvantages of stratgy alliance Essay

The advantages and disadvantages of stratgy alliance - Essay Example This is achieved through various strategies including forming joint ventures, licensing etc. for example, in Pharma industry, firms tend to issue licenses in various different markets where they may not have the direct physical presence of their manufacturing and selling facilities but their brands may be selling into those markets through licensing and distribution of their products. 3) Forming Strategic alliances provide organizations to create synergies for each other so that resources can be better utilized at their most feasible cost to the organization. By utilizing the more efficient resources of other organizations, firms tend not to achieve only the synergies but also a chance to effectively utilize and take advantage of the resources of their strategic partners. 4) Making Strategic alliances at the global level provide opportunity to the firms to transfer distinctive competencies. As discussed above that the organizations in order to expand and realize it’s potentially, try to take advantage of the distinctive competencies of their strategic partners. 5) By making strategic alliances, organization tends to obtain more access to the capital. Since associating themselves with the firms that have more access to the resources therefore can provide organizations a better and more liquid form of financial resources to tap. (Rushika) 6) Alliances help organizations to exploit vertical markets. By doing so the organizations tend to align themselves vertically also in order to ensure various strategic options. These options can include securing the strategic flow of raw materials to the organization, effective flow of technology and labor etc. (Casseres) 7) Making alliances allow firms to develop new technologies. Since with the help of alliances, firms tend to utilize the services of each other and hence the technologies therefore it provide firms an opportunity to develop new

Strategic marketing management for Boots in the UK

Strategic marketing management for Boots in the UK Boots is a leading UK retailer, selling health and beauty products through its chain of Boots the Chemists stores. Around half the Boots brand products are developed and manufactured by the company. In this case the company is in control of the entire supply chain. From its foundation in 1849 Boots has always believed in and practiced what is today known as Corporate Social Responsibility. The company is proud of this heritage and its strong sense of social responsibility. Today it is reflected in values and behaviours and made explicit in the company statement of business purpose. We seek to respond to the legitimate concerns of our stakeholders whether they be in the marketplace, the workplace, the communities in which we operate or the environment that affects us all. Marketing Strategy Options. Boots is a member of Alliance Boots, an international pharmacy-led health and beauty group. Our purpose is to help our customers look and feel better than they ever thought possible. Our customers are at the heart of our business. Were committed to providing exceptional customer and patient care, be the first choice for pharmacy and healthcare, offer innovative products only at Boots, with great value our customers love. Our people are our strength and they tell us that Boots is a great place to work. We are always be the employer of choice, attracting and retaining the most talented and passionate people.The strategy is to focus on its two core business activities of pharmacy led health and beauty retailing and pharmaceutical wholesaling and distribution, while increasingly developing and internationalising our product brands to create a third dimension. growing the core businesses in existing markets,continuing to deliver productivity improvements and other cost savings,pursuing growth opportunities in selective new high growth markets and launching our product brands in new markets. This strategy is underpinned by our continue focus on patient or customer needs and services selective partnerships and our strong financial diciplines.we are commited to providing exceptional customer and patient care be the first choice for pharmacy and healthcare offer innovative products only at Boots,with great va lue our customer love. Pharmacy-led health and beauty strategy : Boots is the largest pharmacy chain in Europe with an excellent reputation for differentiated health and beauty products and customer care.Our strategy is to develop Boots into the worlds leading pharmacy-led health and beauty retail brand,focused on helping people look and feel their best. The key steps we are taking in the uk to execute our strategy are:- -Making Boots more convenient and accessible for our customers. -Developing our people to be at their very best for our customer -Improving our customer in store shopping experience -creating a compelling multi-channel health and wellbeing consumer offering -Increasingly differentiating our product offering -Continuing to provide customers with excellent value -Opening new stores in markets where Boots is already well established -Developing new store in markets where Boots is already well established -Developing country specific Boots branded trading formats to meet local needs. Marketing strategies options: Every marketing strategy is unique, but if we abstract from the individualizing details, each can be reduced into a generic marketing strategy. A brief description of the most common categorizing schemes is presented below, Strategies based on market dominance In this scheme, firms are classified based on their market share or dominance of an industry. There are a number of ways of categorizing these generic strategies. Typically there are four types of market dominance strategies: Leader Niche Follower Challenger Porter generic strategies: Michael Porter assessed strategy on the dimensions of strategic scope and strategic strength. Strategic scope refers to the breadth of market penetration while strategic strength refers to the firms sustainable competitive advantage. He felt three types were important: Market segmentation Product differentiation Cost leadership Innovation strategies:- This deal with the firms rate of new product development and business model innovation. It asks whether the company is on the cutting edge of technology and business innovation. There are three types: Close followers Late followers Pioneers Growth strategies:- In this scheme we ask the question, how should the firm grow? There are a number of different ways of answering that question, but the most common gives four answers: Diversification Intensification Vertical integration Horizontal integration Aggressiveness strategies: This asks whether a firm should grow or not, and if so, how fast. One scheme divides strategies into: Holding Building Harvesting Warfare based strategies: This scheme draws parallels between marketing strategies and military strategies. There are many types of marketing warfare strategies, but they can be grouped into: Flanking marketing warfare Defensive marketing warfare strategies Offensive marketing warfare strategies Keys to Success: An analysis of successful partnerships has identified common features. These include: Project delivery focused on addressing local requirements over a sustained period of time. Likely to include issues as varied as access, car parking, addition to their local Business Rate, to pay for additional services. Where there is a majority vote in favour, all businesses are required to pay. The genuine commitment of the Local Authority (both at senior officer and political level) Adequate funding identified from a broad base of supporters/ sponsors and other sources A Business Plan and a programme of projects endorsed and funded by the partners A robust, inclusive partnership that represents a genuine cross-section of all the elements of town centre activity. A management structure with clear accountabilities to deliver the Business Plan and to monitor and evaluate progress A realistic, achievable vision for the centre that identifies the necessary steps required for its delivery The precept is gathered by the Local Authority but passed to a business-led local partnership to manage and deliver the BID Business Plan. Support available from Alliance Boots, Corporate Affairs: 1. Links and contacts to a broad range of external organisations that can assist with sourcing information and practical support. 2. An additional programme is facilitated by Boots UK for those sites currently without an effective local partnership, but wishing to establish one 3. The Company continues to support the core funding of 100 Town Centre Management initiatives. A twice-yearly Induction Programme is provided by Boots UK (at no charge to ATCM members), for newly appointed Partnership Managers. The programme focuses on the key issues that challenge partnerships and offers help to successfully resolve them 4. A series of short briefing papers have been prepared that store managers and town centre managers can receive upon request. These include; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Developing a Retail Crime Partnership à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Participating in Working Groups and Steering Groups à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Business Improvement Districts what are they à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Influencing Car Park Provision à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Developing Christmas à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Business Improvement Districts lessons learnt à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Preparing a Business Plan à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Broadening the Base of Business Engagement membership services à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Funding à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Marketing and Promotion. Launching an effective campaign to promote your centre à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Business Improvement Districts key criteria necessary for Alliance Boots support à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Sunday/extended Trading hours 5. Advice and guidance to store managers and Town Centre Managers, via contact details on page one of this brief Development of Boots Corporate Social Responsibility Strategy: The launch in 2004 of a new CSR strategy has enabled Boots to develop a framework to integrate sustainable development holistically into all areas of operations covering the sectors of: Workplace Marketplace Community Environment This strategy ensures that sustainable development is integrated effectively across the organisation and underlines Boots commitment to social responsibility as a business value. Progress is reviewed quarterly and reported to the Corporate Social Responsibility Action Group chaired by the Group Operations Director. In addition the Board Social Responsibilities Committee chaired by a non-executive Board Director reviews consistency against operational planning on a quarterly basis. Within these sectors are a total of 21 focus areas. For each one a review was undertaken to benchmark against similar organisations, analyse strengths, weaknesses and identify opportunities for improvements. From this our ambition and annual targets have been developed Targets and progress made in meeting them is reported annually and made publicly available. Porters 5 forces analysis: Competitive rivalry All the other retailers have different competitive advantages. The other factors which compete with the Boots bank is different banks and building societies The retail market is filled up with high competitors as more and more companies are trying to step into the Health Beauty industry Boots reach in different stores allows it to reach large number of customers. Barriers for entry Local knowledge is required for a new business in order to establish, which is highly difficult for new firms to replicate. Barriers to entry is high due to a number of factors: Secondly, company in retail sectors are increasing, which itself means there is very less chance for any new entrances. Firstly, company looking to set up its business in UK requires lots of investment, brand development, which takes years to establish. Threats of Substitutes The only major threat of substitute is an internal industry threat, wherein one supermarket can lap up the business of other supermarkets. The threats for newcomers or substitutes is less, as the consumers views that as a necessity, especially in the developed world. The retail market is always trying to look around for new innovations with respect to Health Beauty products, alternative businesses. As a result of which it is difficult for substitution. Buyers power During the time of recession consumers wants are taken into more demand, thereby increasing their power. Because of the presence of too many competitors in the retail Health Beauty sector selling the same product, buyer power is high in the industry. Supplier power Suppliers in itself is huge company providing products to the supermarkets. If the products are not sold, consumer will shift loyalties, making suppliers more powerful. And also when the products do not reach the supermarket, sales do get affected hugely. Developing Tools and Processes: The company has formal processes for all new product development and introduction. To integrate sustainable development criteria consistently across our product range new and revised tools and processes were introduced. Mckinsey growth pyramid It is similar to that of market matrix. This model argues that business should develop their growth strategies based on: Growth skills Privileged assets Operational skills Privileged assets The model outlines seven ways of achieving growth, which are: New product and services A combination of market matrix and diversification strategy-by developing and marketing new products. Some of these can be sold to the existing customers who trust the business but new customers would require more persuasion. Existing products to new customers Taking the current customers as a base, the objective is to find entirely new products that these customers may buy, or else start to provide the products the existing customer is buying from the competitors. Existing products to existing customers The lowest-risk option; try to increase sales to the existing customers; which can be done by increasing the frequency of purchase and maintaining customer loyalty. New competitive arenas This option requires a business to think about opportunities to integrate vertically or consider whether the skills could be used in other industries. New geographies In this businesses are encouraged to consider new geographical areas into which to sell their products. Geographical expansions is one of the most powerful option for growth-but also one of the difficult ones. New delivery approaches This focuses on the use of distribution channels as a possible means of growth. Are there any ways in which the products can be sold using the current or new emerging channels which may boost sales? New industry structure It considers the possibility of acquiring troubled competitors which can be done through a general acquisition program. TASK2 MARKETING ENVIRONMENT Using of PESTEL analysis, marketing mix elements can be produced to contribute the goals and values of Boots, after analyzing the current marketing environment. PESTEL analysis: PESTEL ANALYSIS (Political, Economical, Social, Technological, Environmental, Legal)The PESTEL analysis is a useful tool for understanding market growth or decline, and as such the position, potential and direction for a business.. The PESTEL analysis headings are a framework for reviewing a situation, and can also, like SWOT analysis, and Porters Five Forces model, be used to review a strategy or position, direction of a company, a marketing proposition, or idea. Its an external factor. PESTEL is used to assess the market for a business or organizational unit. A PESTEL analysis is a business measurement tool. A PESTEL analysis measures a market; a SWOT analysis measures a business unit, a proposition or idea. Considering each factor individually :- Political European/international legislation international regulations government term and change regulatory bodies and processes current legislation home market government trading policies funding, grants and initiatives Economic The UK has been in recession since August 2009 with two successive quarters of decline , affecting the economical factors nationally and globally. general/ product specific taxation issues customer/end-user drivers overseas economies and trends home economy situation/ trends specific industry factors market routes and distribution trends Social Factors including the demographic changes, the way people live, work and think and cultural aspect of the place, affecting customer needs and the potential markets demographics consumer attitudes and opinions lifestyle trends advertising and publicit .media views consumer buying patterns brand, company, technology image ethnic/religious factors Technological It includes RD, computerization, technology incentives and rate at which technology changes. These changes affect the cost and quality of the product motivating for improvement. competing technology development research funding intellectual property issues consumer buying mechanisms/technology maturity of technology associated/dependent technologies manufacturing maturity and capacity technology access, licensing, patents replacement technology/solutions information and communications innovation potential technology access, licensing, patents technology legislation Environmental Boots uses the carbon foot printing tool in their farms which says about the total amount of greenhouse gases caused directly and indirectly in the making and transportation of that product climate Weather climate change .. Legal The cost of production and operation and effect on employees working in Boots was affected when government increased the labour wages by 15%. It also follows legal factors like no child labour, special consideration for disables ,etc. health and safety law employment law antitrust law discrimination law consumer law Globalisation:- After considering all the above factors Boots should put plan and put down proper strategies before entering the global market and also reviewing the progress on regular basis , so as to make the necessary changes. Following are the areas which should be consider by the organisation: Well planned Strategies to develop the profit and to attain long term goal Know clearly the goals , objectives and targets with a regular follow up. Organisation should identify and assess their product in the market need to plan strategically as well as operationally market growth using the PESTEL analysis. logic, self-discipline and to operate systematically SWOT analysis STRENGTHS Strengths Weaknesses Strong Brand Equity Low profitability Store Network Lack of International Presence Opportunities Threats Store expansions in UK Intense price competition Expanding product offerings High regulatory oversight WEAKNESSES Declining Reputation Boots is only presented in UK. Therefore there can be an issue if the company wants to have growth in the retailing Health Beauty Division sector. OPPORTUNITY Online sales are a great opportunity for future growth. Staff which works at Boots are essential buyers, administrators, systems designers, finance workers and so on all are part of the whole team that must work together to make things operate smoothly and efficiently Boots alternative business, investing in properties can have major growth in the future. THREATS As a result there needs to be investment related to environmental and green issues. Boots operations have become a topic on various issues like environmental, planning and other factors. Conclusion It is important to recognize that sustainable development is a journey of continual improvement. The processes and tools we have developed are under continual review and refinement. Some of our priorities for the immediate future include: Extending and adapting the risk assessment model for use in other business functions. Developing product sustainability benchmarking Building sustainable development criteria into brand and departmental key performance indicators. Understanding the climate change impacts of products. Developing strategies for consumer information on sustainable development issues. In short Boots UKs views sustainable development as a Holy Grail given the scale of the challenge, the complexity of our business and the pace of change. But we know that it is a key differential for Boots UK, that we are leading the way on many of the issues, and it is no less than what is expected of us by our customers and wider society. Journals/Magazines European Journal of Marketing (Emerald Group Publishing) Campaign ( Haymarket Publishing) Admap ( World Advertising Research Centre) Revolution ( Haynet) Journal of Consumer Behaviour ( Academy of Marketing Science) Marketing Intelligence and Planning (Emerald Group Publishing) Marketing Business (The Chartered Institute of Marketing Magazine) Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science ( Academy of Marketing Science) Marketing Week (Centure Communications Ltd) Websites http://www.boots-UK/Media/PDFs/CSR/2BCE_AWARDS_Paper_v3_general_release.pdf http://www.boots.com/en/Help/About-Boots.com/ http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt.PDF http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEST_analysis http://www.businesspme.com/uk/articles/marketing/6/Types-of-marketing-strategies.html http://www.chicagoexec.net/chicago.nsf http://www.boots-uk.com/Our_Group/Alliance_Boots_Board.aspx http://strategy-guide.blogspot.com/2006/03/mckinsey-growth-pyramid The Strategic Marketing Process